Student Spotlight – Madison Bishop

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Meet UCLA undergraduate researcher Madison Bishop!

Madison majors in Psychology, minors in Applied Developmental Psychology, and is a part of the UCLA/Keck Humanistic Inquiry Undergraduate Research Awards program. Her project, “From Hearing to Understanding: How Parent’s Language Impacts Children’s Emotion Categorization,” aims to share information that will help families and early childcare centers better support children’s emotional and social-cognitive development.

How did you first get interested in your research project?

I first got interested in my project when exploring the difference between children’s emotion categorization abilities in the Language and Cognitive Development Lab. I was fascinated by what factors may have contributed to some children being better at categorizing different emotions such as happy, sad, and angry.

What has been the most exciting aspect of your research so far?

The most exciting aspect of my research so far has been the freedom of developing my own project. I have enjoyed setting a timeline and holding myself accountable.

What has surprised you about your research or the research process?

I have been most surprised by the amount of diverse research that is out there. It has been interesting to find several articles that support my hypothesis, but then also stumble upon one that completely contradictions it.

What is one piece of advice you have for other UCLA students thinking about doing research?

My biggest piece of advise I have for other UCLA students thinking about doing research is to reflect on what topics you find the most fascinating. Research is a very time-consuming and tedious process, so you want to make sure that what you are learning about excites you!

What effect do you hope your research has in your field, at UCLA, in your community, or in the world?

I hope my research will have a lasting positive impact on the field of developmental psychology. Through my project, I aim to share information that will help families and early childcare centers better support children’s emotional and social-cognitive development.

Headshot of an Asian American male college student, smiling, wearing a dark suit, wire rim glasses, and earrings, smiling, with greenery in the background

Student Spotlight – Ryan Horio

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Meet UCLA undergraduate researcher Ryan Horio!

Ryan is double majoring in Human Biology & Society and Asian American Studies with a minor in Community Engagement & Social Change. He is part of the UCLA/Keck Humanistic Inquiry Undergraduate Research Awards program. The title of his project is “Fear, identity, and activism during COVID-19: Conceptualizing racialized Asian youths’ experiences of sinophobia and foreigner racialization in the US.” Through his project, he hopes to give his communities a voice and the courage to use it. Ryan’s best piece of advice is that anything can be research!

How did you first get interested in your research project?

During the pandemic, I witnessed people who looked like me being assaulted and discriminated against solely due to their perceived race. I felt helpless and unable to do anything at the time, and those feelings followed me to college where I pursued a second major in Asian American Studies. My academic journey combined with my passion for racial justice and activism led me to pursue an honors thesis and this research project.

What has been the most exciting aspect of your research so far?

Definitely speaking to my participants and listening to their stories! As my work seeks to place the experiences of anti-Asian hate during the pandemic within the broader context of sinophobia and foreigner racialization, these interviews are what keep me grounded in my work. It is a privilege to hear such powerful and intimate experiences.

What has surprised you about your research or the research process?

I did not realize how important research is for any kind of change. Furthermore, I believed research was something that remained in academia. However, discussing with other researchers and reflecting on my research’s purpose, I became surprised at how influential our voices can be if channeled together and done effectively. This experience has shaped my future goals within research and academia.

What is one piece of advice you have for other UCLA students thinking about doing research?

Anything can be research! So, you might as well do it on something that you are passionate about—think about the things that get you excited, the topics that you could talk endlessly on, the communities that motivate you to be here as a UCLA student. If you choose something that you are passionate about, you are already further than most others.

What effect do you hope your research has in your field, at UCLA, in your community, or in the world?

I hope that my research will give my communities a voice, as well as the courage to use it. Historically, we have been silent and have been silenced. In this light, I hope that our institutions listen to our stories as students and support us in the ways that we need them to. I also hope that my work empowers us to speak about our experiences instead of remaining silent. Finally, I hope that my research encourages others to think critically about their own research’s purpose and to keep action at the center of our work as academics.

You can follow Ryan on Instagram at @ryanhorio.

Student Spotlight – Claire Smith

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Meet UCLA undergraduate researcher Claire Smith!

Claire is majoring in Human Biology and Society with a minor in Professional Writing. She is part of the Undergraduate Research Scholars Program.  The title of her project is “Evaluating the Efficacy of Mindfulness Self-Compassion Therapy in Mitigating Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms for Women Experiencing Homelessness with Substance Use Disorders.” Claire’s best piece of advice is to find a mentor whose work you really admire.

How did you first get interested in your research project?

I first became interested in community-engaged research through my work at the UCLA Mobile Clinic Project. This organization showed me firsthand the importance of using evidence-based, compassionate strategies. My work with MCP and Dr. Garfin’s REACH Lab have empowered me to continue advocating for resources and policies that support individuals experiencing housing insecurity.

What has been the most exciting aspect of your research so far?

The most exciting aspect of this research has been hearing feedback about the Mindfulness Self Compassion course. It’s wonderful to hear that some women feel it has really had a positive impact on their lives.

What is one piece of advice you have for other UCLA students thinking about doing research?

I would encourage students interested in beginning research to find a faculty or grad-student mentor whose work they admire. It can be really difficult to get started on your own, but having a mentor to guide you is incredibly helpful.

What effect do you hope your research has in your field, at UCLA, in your community, or in the world?

I hope that my research motivates funding bodies and community organizations to provide accessible and effective mental health programs to women recovering from trauma. As the literature surrounding housing insecurity and mental health therapies grows, I hope more people will prioritize trauma-informed care approaches for women experiencing housing insecurity.

You can follow Claire on Instagram at @cclairesmithh.

 

Young woman in a pale blue jacket, wearing a black and white scarf. Behind her is a landscape of grass, some water, and a village.

Student Spotlight – Sihui Lin

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Meet UCLA undergraduate researcher Sihui Lin!

Sihui majors in Architectural Studies, Statistics and Data Science with a minor in Digital Humanities. She is a researcher in our Undergraduate Research Scholars Program (URSP)! Her research project is titled “From First to Fine: Facsimile, Fine Printing, and Cultural Patronage in William Andrews Clark Jr.’s Christmas Gift Books.”

How did you first get interested in your research project?

I first became interested in book studies through an English capstone seminar on libraries and special collections, where I had the opportunity to work directly with archival materials—from 17th-century booksellers’ catalogs to 20th-century fine printing masterpieces. I found it incredibly inspiring to explore UCLA’s vast library resources, which span diverse cultures and histories. While searching for compelling books to work on, I came across an article about the Clark Library’s history written by Lawrence Clark Powell, after whom Powell Library is named. The series of Christmas gift books published by William Andrews Clark, Jr. immediately caught my attention due to their distinctive format and cultural significance. I feel deeply grateful and honored to have the opportunity to explore UCLA’s own collections.

What has been the most exciting aspect of your research so far?

One of the most exciting parts of my research has been the opportunity to work directly with rare materials at the Clark Library and Library Special Collections. I am always captivated by the experience of handling fine printing books—turning pages made from handmade paper, noticing the intricate details of their craftsmanship, and spotting delicate watermarks that reflect the meticulous care put into their creation. It is a tangible connection to the past that feels almost magical. Beyond the materials themselves, the staff at both libraries have been incredibly supportive, sharing insights about their collections and helping me uncover hidden treasures.

What has surprised you about your research or the research process?

Working with archival materials has been full of surprises, and that’s part of what makes it so exciting for me. There’s something thrilling about diving into boxes of primary sources—whether it’s thank-you notes, newspaper clippings, or handwritten letters—without always knowing exactly where they will lead or what argument might emerge. Sometimes these materials align perfectly with secondary sources, but other times they challenge or even contradict existing narratives, which can completely reshape my understanding of the past. It is in those moments of discovery that I really feel the power of research—being able to piece together a more nuanced, comprehensive picture of history. It is surprising and unpredictable, but that is what keeps it so engaging.

What is one piece of advice you have for other UCLA students thinking about doing research?

I recommend exploring the excellent resources available at UCLA’s libraries! They offer extensive catalogs curated by experts across various fields. Plus, subject librarians are highly knowledgeable in their respective areas, so be sure to take advantage of their expertise!

What effect do you hope your research has in your field, at UCLA, in your community, or in the world?

Through my research, I hope to uncover the stories behind the treasures held in UCLA’s libraries and explore how private printing has shaped Los Angeles’s cultural landscape. While fine printing might seem like a niche field with little direct impact on daily life, it reveals fascinating narratives about cultural capital, craftsmanship, and the values of the past. By bringing these stories to light, I aim to help others appreciate the artistry and history behind these works—things that are often overlooked or taken for granted.

 

Student Spotlight – Cris Avitia Camacho

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Meet UCLA undergraduate researcher Cris Avitia Camacho!

Cris majors in Chicana and Chicano Studies & Labor Studies, minors in Gender Studies, and is part of the Undergraduate Research Fellows Program. The title of their project is “The Intersections of Culture, Religion, and Identity on Child-Mother Relationships: College-Aged Assigned Female at Birth LGBTQ+ Individuals with Latinx Mothers.” Cris’ work, which examines the effects of religion, culture, and identity on relationships between assigned female at birth LGBTQ+ individuals and their Latinx mothers, is inspired by their own experience as a non-binary lesbian individual with a Latinx mother. Their best piece of advice is to write about something that matters to YOU.

How did you first get interested in your research project?

I first became interested in my research project when I took CCAS M126 Politics of Crisis: Migration, Identity, and Religion and wrote my final research paper about the effects of migration and religion on the mother-child bond. I felt very passionate while writing that topic and wanted to explore it in a different direction, with my own interests in gender and sexuality. Therefore, when the URFP application went live, I decided to give it a shot and apply. I choose to do my research project for URFP on this topic because of my own experiences as a non-binary lesbian individual with a Latinx mother. I’m in the process of interviewing other LGBTQ+ individuals who have a similar identity to mine and see the effects of religion, culture, and identity on relationships between them and their mother. The importance of this is because gender and sexuality are often “taboo” topics within the Latinx community, and I want to give a voice to individuals whose experiences might otherwise be pushed down or unheard.

What has been the most exciting aspect of your research so far?

The most exciting aspect of my research so far has been getting to go through the history of gender and sexuality in Latin American cultures, and how it has evolved over time. There’s so much information not readily available or known to the public, and I believe that writing about this topic could allow for open conversations about it. Also, going through the IRB process and getting approval was so rewarding and helped me learn more about the research process for the future!

What has surprised you about your research or the research process?

The lengthiness of the research process, there is so much scholarship and documentation to go through. It can be overwhelming at times, but being passionate about it motivates me to continue and when I get in a writing mood, it feels like time is flying by. I feel like going through this research process will prepare me for the future and allow me to become a better writer and researcher. This is a rewarding experience, and the process is so worth it!

What is one piece of advice you have for other UCLA students thinking about doing research?

One piece of advice I have for other UCLA students thinking about doing research is to follow your passions and write about something that matters to YOU! We need more people to care about topics like these and beyond, every idea and thought you have could change the world!

What effect do you hope your research has in your field, at UCLA, in your community, or in the world?

I hope that my research allows for small changes within the Latinx community about how we discuss gender and sexuality and dismantle taboos surrounding it. I want people like me or individuals who are friends and family of Latinx LGBTQ+ to feel free to exist unapologetically and know they are not alone in their experiences. I hope this inspires other Latinx LGBTQ+ individuals to also research a similar topic using their experiences because the only way we’ll bring change is if we’re all united. I hope to continue and expand on this research topic in the future because it is so essential to become open-minded and not just tolerant towards LGBTQ+ people in Latinx communities.

Student Spotlight – Paula Zepeda

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Meet UCLA undergraduate researcher Paula Zepeda!

Paula majors in Political Science, minors in Latin American Studies, and is part of the UCLA/Keck Humanistic Inquiry Undergraduate Research Awards program. The title of her project is “Inclusion and Exclusion in U.S. Immigration Rhetoric: Party, Constituency, and Co-Ethnicity in the House of Representatives.” Paula’s research brings forth a new perspective on legislative behavior encompassing the underlying racial bias embedded in the political system and a deeper understanding of the driving factors influencing legislators’ decisions on federal immigration bills. Her best piece of advice is to embrace your curiosity and actively engage with new information from a variety of sources.

How did you first get interested in your research project?

After taking Political Science classes covering topics like Latino Politics and news media, I became fascinated with the effects Latinos have had in transforming the American political landscape and the harm politicians inflict on minority groups when restricting them into stereotypes, thus increasing my curiosity to study the existing tensions between race/ethnicity and American politics in my research project. I was introduced to academic research during my sophomore year when I worked as a research assistant to graduate students. I am a first-generation Latina student, and those experiences have been valuable in introducing me to a new area in academia that I previously never knew about before becoming a UCLA student. I decided to apply to the Departmental Honors Program for Political Science, and am grateful for the unique opportunity that this program and the UCLA/Keck Humanistic Inquiry Undergraduate Research Awards program have provided me with to develop my thesis about U.S. House members’ immigration rhetoric amidst political polarization.

What has been the most exciting aspect of your research so far?

The most exciting aspect of my research has been examining the variety of sources that make information about Congressional actions and events accessible to read and watch. I have learned about website sources C-Span and Congressional Record that have bountiful information on speeches and debates that members of Congress have engaged in over the years. I can find videos dating back to the 1980s and compare the rhetoric past members have employed when speaking about immigration to the present day. Watching debates and speeches by members of Congress has been one of my favorite parts so far during this research process!

What has surprised you about your research or the research process?

I am surprised that during the research process, investigations, as well as revisions to one’s work, continue and never stop. I read scholarly articles daily to add to my thesis, and am always learning something new that strengthens my understanding of immigration rhetoric and legislative behavior. Ideas expand and they capture my attention because it enhances my ability to converse with the concepts in my arguments and theory.

What is one piece of advice you have for other UCLA students thinking about doing research?

Embrace your curiosity! Actively engage with the information provided in class, online, books, or even in conversations with family or friends by either challenging or questioning it because the academic field continues to grow. The contributions you can make in research add valuable knowledge to the ongoing scholarly debates, as well as to the greater community.

What effect do you hope your research has in your field, at UCLA, in your community, or in the world?

I hope my research brings forth a new perspective on legislative behavior encompassing the underlying racial bias embedded in the political system and a deeper understanding of the driving factors influencing legislators’ decisions on federal immigration bills. Immigration is one big topic of debate that Congress has disputed since its establishment in 1789. It continues to be a policy area where political parties are highly polarized and might resort to descriptions of immigrants as economic threats or criminals in order to justify their support behind restrictive immigration laws. I hope my research propels legislators to create arguments about immigration bills grounded in facts rather than assumptions because their legislative decisions on immigration impact various ethnic groups nationwide, especially Latinos, who embody the largest minority group in the United States, as well as undocumented immigrants who reside in the nation of immigrants where anti-immigrant sentiments persist.

Student Spotlight – Frank Godinez

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Meet UCLA undergraduate researcher Frank Godinez!

Frank majors in Sociology and Political Science and is a Mellon Mays Undergraduate Fellow. The title of his project is “Police, Nonprofits and the Carceral Web.” Frank studies critical theory, Marxist theory, carceral capitalism, and the police state, and is using his research to employ a critical approach in advocating for/creating epistemologies that dignify and assert the agency of those harmed by—and who’ve resisted—systems of oppression. His best piece of advice is to read about a topic that interests you and don’t be so strict about the research process.

How did you first get interested in your research project?

I took a methods course that came really easy to me, and one day, I came across a section on ethnography. I remember thinking, “Wow, this is research?” Over the break, I read a book mentioned in our textbook, Sudhir Venkatesh’s Gang Leader for a Day. Being from South Central and system-impacted, I remember having so many critiques of the project. So, when I took Dr. Jason Sexton’s Sociology of Crime course, and the final project was a research project, I knew what I was going to do. I conducted a small ‘ethnography’ documenting the oral histories of (former) gang members, reconciling their narratives with larger sociohistorical and political-economic trends. At the same time, I connected with Dr. David Turner and joined his Abolition and Youth Organizing lab on campus, where we have been researching the Police Free Schools Campaign throughout LA County. Dr. Turner recommended that I apply to an SR-EIP program, and so I did. I got into UChicago’s Summer program and spent nine weeks in Chicago working with Dr. Robert Vargas on an independent project that looked at police philanthropy (private funding of police departments). After the summer, I decided I wanted to turn my project into a senior thesis and was encouraged by Dr. Vargas to work with Dr. Chris Herring at UCLA on my project. Since then, I’ve been admitted into the Mellon Mays Program while also working as a Bunche Research Fellow for Dr. Turner. I’ll continue multiple projects over my next quarters at UCLA.

What has been the most exciting aspect of your research so far?

I love falling into rabbit holes. And I love it when I find a source that is right on the money of the question/topic I’m interested in exploring. Specifically, I study critical theory, Marxist theory, carceral capitalism, and the police state. I also view my interest in the politics of abolition as a large, interconnected struggle, and seeing how there are so many different angles people have taken or that I can take in interrogating social life and institutions gives me hope. I also really enjoy that my research is grounded in a commitment to my community, and I would never want my research to be divorced from topics that are informed by my own personal experiences and identities.

What has surprised you about your research or the research process?

Probably just how iterative and creative you can be with it. I think there are specific recipes for what ‘traditional’ (social) science research looks like, but that doesn’t necessarily mean it’s good. It doesn’t have to be a step-by-step process like a controlled life sciences study. So, I try to be as creative as possible when I piece together what different authors have said about topics like carceral capitalism or what it even means. You’ll find that people trained differently (e.g., geographers/sociologists/public health) will offer different, interdisciplinary perspectives. This produces really complex and complicated pictures/answers to a lot of the social problems pressing us today. So, I try to unlearn a lot of strictly binary ways of thinking and or understanding things, especially social life.

What is one piece of advice you have for other UCLA students thinking about doing research?

Just read. Read about a topic that interests you and try to develop a question. It doesn’t have to be precise. Not unless you’re committing to a research program or something. Also, don’t be so strict with the process. Research is so iterative that you can approach it from so many different angles. Be it qualitative, quantitative, mixed methods – the choice is yours. That’s also why reading what other people have read can be a good starting point.

What effect do you hope your research has in your field, at UCLA, in your community, or in the world?

I am optimistic that I can someday become a leading scholar in urban sociological research with expertise in various specialized topics (policing, youth organizing, gangs, law, and policy) supplemented by my own lived experience to influence policy and the critical analysis of social and political institutions. I recognize that as a system-impacted male of color, I offer a lens that is highly underrepresented in the academy. My lived experience inspires me to employ a critical approach in advocating for/creating epistemologies that dignify and assert the agency of those harmed by—and who’ve resisted—systems of oppression.

Student Spotlight – Aleeza West

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Meet UCLA undergraduate researcher Aleeza West!

Aleeza majors in Psychology and is a recipient of the UCLA/Keck Humanistic Inquiry Undergraduate Research Award. Her project is titled “The Effect of Fear Generalization on Social Fear, Social Avoidance, Experiential Avoidance, and Functional Impairment Amongst Individuals with Social Anxiety Disorder.” Aleeza’s work aims to discover better ways to diagnose and treat individuals with anxiety. Her best advice is to always look for opportunities, even if you have to ask.

How did you first get interested in your research project?

I became interested in pursuing an independent research project upon joining Dr. Michelle Craske’s Anxiety and Depression Center. Through my experience as a research assistant and moving on to coordinating multiple studies, I became curious about leading my own project. After developing my idea with my mentors, I applied and was accepted to both the UCLA departmental honors program in Psychology and the UCLA/Keck Humanistic Inquiry Undergraduate Research Awards program.

What has been the most exciting aspect of your research so far?

The most exciting aspect has been designing my project. I am passionate about discovering better ways to diagnose and treat individuals with anxiety, and being able to create a project surrounding my research interests has been an amazing experience.

What has surprised you about your research or the research process?

What surprised me about the research process is how much I have learned throughout it. I have grown so much thanks to my mentors, Nora and Brooke, about data management, statistics, and overall research processes.

What is one piece of advice you have for other UCLA students thinking about doing research?

I advise other UCLA students to always look for opportunities, even if you have to ask! The worst thing that a possible mentor could say is no.

What effect do you hope your research has in your field, at UCLA, in your community, or in the world?

I hope my research journey inspires others to be confident enough to pursue their own independent experiences. Furthermore, I hope that my research can inform diagnostic and treatment options of those living with social anxiety.

Student Spotlight – Chanaporn (New) Tohsuwanwanich

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Meet UCLA undergraduate researcher Chanaporn (New) Tohsuwanwanich!

New majors in Geography, minors in GIS&T and Urban & Regional Studies, and is in the Undergraduate Research Scholars Program. The title of her project is “Leaving no one behind?: Shifting Vulnerabilities of Participants in Baan Mankong Program in Bangkok, Thailand.” New’s work aims to gain a comprehensive, holistic perspective of a slum-upgrading program in Thailand called Baan Mankong. She is conducting ethnographic fieldwork to learn more about the successes of Baan Mankong as well as the challenges embedded in the system. Her best piece of advice is to follow your passion!

How did you first get interested in your research project?

In the International Housing Policy class, I learned various case studies worldwide on different facets of housing management. A slum upgrading program proposed by the Thai government called Baan Mankong immediately caught my attention. Despite being a Thai citizen, I have never heard about the program. The system of communal saving groups with government subsidies, focusing on infrastructure and housing loans, is a perfect solution. The program has so much potential to strengthen community bonding through saving and caters to the community’s needs. Consequently, Baan Mankong has been praised by many scholars, with many successful stories of participating communities. However, the struggles of many other communities are still unrevealed. Thus, ethnographic fieldwork and interviews with many stakeholders would help me deepen my knowledge about the community’s efforts.

What has been the most exciting aspect of your research so far?

I visited the field site, walked around the neighborhood, and talked with the community members and policymakers. I have learned a lot from my conversations and hope to expand and understand the community more to address their challenges in the Baan Mankong program.

What has surprised you about your research or the research process?

The interview process was very nerve-wracking for me at the very beginning. It went a lot easier and better than what I expected. I appreciate everyone I talked to, and it fulfilled some missing pieces I have been finding to learn more about the project. They were happy to welcome me to sit in their meeting, talk to professors who came in for community tourism development, or give me a ride to the nearby location. Going into the field was not only a part of the work process but also one of my enjoyments over the past summer.

What is one piece of advice you have for other UCLA students thinking about doing research?

If you know what your passion is, follow your passion! Talk to people: your professors, TAs, seniors, and advisors. Many people are willing to help you out, and there are many resources to support your research journey. Start with asking and taking action!

What effect do you hope your research has in your field, at UCLA, in your community, or in the world?

Learning about the community’s struggles gives a holistic perspective of the Baan Mankong program. Looking at the bright, flourishing communities and recognizing the challenges embedded in the system would help the program benefit a broader range of people. A comprehensive understanding of Baan Mankong would help create a better version. As the Baan Mankong model has also been adopted by other countries, such as the Phillippines, the changes will positively impact Thai communities and benefit other countries in their low-income settlement improvement.

Student Spotlight – Emma Horio

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Meet UCLA undergraduate researcher Emma Horio!

Emma majors in English and is a recipient of the UCLA/Keck Humanistic Inquiry Research Award. The title of her project is “Tales of Blood and Thunder: Pulp Fiction and Sexuality in the Nineteenth-Century United States.” Horio’s work examines Louisa May Alcott’s sensation fiction, which has led Horio to the Houghton Library, where she will conduct archival research on Alcott’s writings. Her best piece of advice is to take classes with professors who share your research interests and ask for their guidance.

How did you first get interested in your research project?

I took a class with my now-advisor in Fall 2022, which piqued my interest in the topic of sexuality in American literature. I took another class with him in Spring when I was deciding on a thesis topic, and decided that I wanted to do a project that engaged with American literature of the Victorian era. After a few false starts, my advisor pointed me toward Louisa May Alcott, and the rest was history.

What has been the most exciting aspect of your research so far?

I’m working on Alcott’s sensation fiction, which was fairly recently discovered and consequently hasn’t received as much critical attention. I’m flying to Boston in December to visit the Houghton Library and conduct archival research there, where a lot of her letters, manuscripts, and ephemera are housed. I’m really excited for the opportunity to look at these documents and gain a better understanding of her relationships with her publishers and those around her.

What has surprised you about your research or the research process?

It surprised me how easy it is to fall down rabbit holes. I had originally intended to write my thesis on Alcott’s body of sensation fiction as a whole, which was a rookie mistake on my part. There are so many dynamics at play in that massive body of work that narrowing the scope of my project sometimes still seems like a Sisyphean task.

What is one piece of advice you have for other UCLA students thinking about doing research?

Take classes with professors who share your research interests and ask for their guidance. Use the class as an opportunity to show them your skill, potential, and work ethic.

What effect do you hope your research has in your field, at UCLA, in your community, or in the world?

I hope that my research can assist in deepening our understanding of how sexuality was communicated in popular literature during the Victorian era and provide support for the idea that queer people have always existed under many different labels and cultural conceptions.